Do men and women differ in their behaviour and cognition? If so, what role do biological factors (such as genes and hormones) and socio-cultural factors play? Can evolutionary theory be usefully applied to the study of human behaviour? If so, has culture influenced how humans have evolved?
These types of questions are being tackled by Prof. Gillian R. Brown and her research group in the School of Psychology & Neuroscience at the University of St Andrews, UK.
Now published! Gillian R. Brown and Kevin Lala (2024) Sense and Nonsense: Evolutionary Perspectives on Human Behaviour (3rd edition). OUP.
‘Evolutionary theory is one of the most wide-ranging and inspiring scientific ideas, and it offers a battery of methods that can be used to interpret human behaviour. However, researchers disagree about the best ways to use evolution to explore humanity, and a number of schools of thought have emerged.
Sense and Nonsense (3rd edition) provides an introduction to the ideas, methods and findings of five such schools, namely sociobiology, human behavioural ecology, evolutionary psychology, cultural evolution and gene–culture coevolution. In this revised and updated edition of their successful monograph, Brown and Lala provide a balanced and rigorous analysis that scrutinises both the evolutionary arguments and the allegations of the critics, carefully guiding the reader through the mire of confusing terminology, claim, and counter-claim, and polemical statements.’
The over-arching goal of our research has been to understand sex/gender differences, and similarities, in behaviour in humans and other animals by examining how evolutionary theory can shed light on gender differences in behaviour, how social and cultural factors influence human behaviour, and how exposure to gonadal hormones during early life influences developmental trajectories. The methodologies have include human questionnaire studies, behavioural neuroendocrinology techniques, and meta-analyses.
Current research projects
Evolutionary perspectives on gender differences in human behaviour
We have critically evaluated how evolutionary theory has been applied to human behaviour from Darwin through sociobiology to the present day [1]. We have argued that evolutionary accounts of gender differences in human behaviour are often based on over-simplified views of evolution [2] and have neglected the importance of cultural processes [3]. We have proposed that a niche construction perspective can provide a richer and fuller account of the diversity of human behaviour [4].
[1] Brown G. & Lala K. (2024). Sense and Nonsense: Evolutionary Perspectives on Human Behaviour (3rd edition). OUP. [2] Brown G, Laland K & Borgerhoff Mulder M. (2009). Trends Ecol Evol 24: 297-304. [3] Wareham N, Pákozdy C & Brown G. (2024). Sex Roles 90, 1751-65. [4] Brown G, Dickins T, Sear R & Laland K. (2011). Phil Trans R Soc B 366,313-24.
The ‘imposter phenomenon’ and gender-based microaggressions
The ‘imposter phenomenon’ is defined as experiencing feelings of self-doubt and being concerned about being exposed as a fraud who’s successes are due to luck or other external factors. Our research has shown that, in university students, feelings of imposterism are positively correlated with perfectionism and negatively correlated with self-efficacy and happiness [1]. Our ongoing research is investigating the link between imposterism, gender-based microaggressions and wellbeing.
[1] Pákozdy C., et al. (2024). Curr Psychol 43: 5153-62.
Gender differences in human behaviour, cognition and personality
When men and women differ in their average performance on cognitive tasks, the difference is often attributed to ‘ability’. However, factors such as confidence and willingness to take risks could influence performance. We showed that the decision to learn socially, rather than asocially, is influenced by confidence [1] and the riskiness of these options [2], and, other factors, such as gender differences in sensation-seeking [3] and interpretation of ambiguous scenarios [4], could also impact performance.
[1] Cross C, Brown G, Morgan T & Laland K. (2017). Brit J Psychol 108: 655-667. [2] Brand C, Brown G & Cross C. (2018). PeerJ 6: e4190. [3] Cross C, Cyrenne D & Brown, G. (2013). Sci Rep 3: 2486. [4] Brown G, Gluck R & Dritschel B. (2014). Brit J Dev Psychol 32: 116-22.
Past research projects
Gonadal hormones and sex differences in behavioural development
During adolescence, circulating levels of gonadal hormones, such as testosterone and estrogen, rise dramatically, and these hormones can have long-term effects on brain development [1]. Our studies of adolescent rats (Rattus norvegicus) showed that sex differences in behaviour emerge during this stage of life [2] and that manipulating gonadal hormone levels during adolescence impacts upon behavioural development, such as responsiveness to novel objects [3] and social partners [4].
[1] Brown G & Spencer K. (2013). Neurosci 249: 115-28. [2] Lynn D & Brown G. (2009). Dev Psychobiol 51: 513-20. [3] Cyrenne D & Brown G. (2011). Horm Behav 60: 625-31. [4] Brown G, Kulbarsh K, Spencer K & Duval C. (2015). Horm Behav 73: 135-41.
Food sharing and social learning in nonhuman primates
In many species of nonhuman primates, young animals will take food items that have been foraged by their parents or other group members [1]. While these ‘food transfers’ provide youngsters with an important source of nutrition, we hypothesised that they also help youngsters to learn what to eat, where to forage and how to process food [2,3]. Our observational studies of common marmosets showed that the parents responded to patterns of begging behaviour from their offspring [4].
[1] Rapaport L & Brown G. (2008). Evol Anthropol 17: 189-201. [2] Brown G, Almond R & van Bergen Y. (2004). Adv Stud Behav 34: 265-95. [3] Hoppitt W, Brown G, et al. (2008). Trends Ecol Evol 23: 486-93. [4] Brown G, Almond R & Bates, N. (2005). Am J Primatol 65: 301-12.
Sex-biased parental investment and birth sex ratios in nonhuman primates
Selection is predicted to favour mothers that bias their investment towards sons or daughters when the expected returns are greater for one sex than the other [1]. However, our meta-analyses provided no evidence that birth sex ratios were biased according to maternal rank in non-human primates [2] or specifically in baboons [3]. Our comparative analyses across primate species did reveal evidence that birth sex ratios varied according to which sex disperses from the natal area [4].
[1] Brown G. (2001). Anim Behav 61: 683-694. [2] Silk J & Brown G. (2002). PNAS 99: 11252-11255. [3] Silk J, Willoughby E. & Brown, G. (2005). Proc R Soc B 272: 859-864. [4] Silk J. & Brown, G. (2008). Proc R Soc B 275: 1761-1765.